Indus Valley Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Bronze Age. Indus Valley Civilization has been a hot topic in both UPSC Prelims and Mains.
One of the questions also asked about drawing parallels between Indus Valley Civilization and Smart City Mission of India. This article will help in covering the Indus Valley Civilization extensively.
The focus, while studying for UPSC, should be on understanding patterns, contexts, and analysis. For example, if we find an absence of hierarchy in Indus Valley Civilization, it tells us about the way people lived during that time.
The Harappan or Indus Valley Civilization is a part of Proto-history, and is the first known urban settlement/civilization in South Asia. Other examples of civilization showing well settled societal life includes –
- Mesopotamian (Sumerian Civilization) – 4500-1900 BCE
- Egyptian Civilization – 3200-1000 BCE
- Chinese Civilization – 2100–1600 BC
This, along with the Indus Valley Civilization, is called “Cradles of Civilization”.
Due to changes in different pattern in the Indus Valley Civilization, the period has been divided into three phases –
- Early Phase (3300 to 2600 CE)
- Mature Phase (2600 to 1900 CE)
- Late Phase (1900 to 1300 CE)
Sites from the Early Phase (3300 to 2600 CE)
- Padri (Gujarat)
- Kalibangan (Rajasthan)
- Dholavira (Kutch)
- Harappan (Pakistan)
- Balakot
- Amri
- Bhirrana
Sites from the Mature Phase (2600 to 1900 CE)
- Manda (Jammu)
- Sutkagendor (Balochistan)
- Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh)
- Malvan (Gujarat)
Sites from the Late Phase (1900 to 1300 CE)
- Jhukar Phase
- West Punjab Phase
- Ganga Yamuna Doab Phase
- Rangpur Phase
Origin of Indus Valley Civilization
Generally, it is believed that Indus Valley Civilization originated from the Pre-Harappan indigeneous village culture. However, there is no theory which is completely accepted without any contradiction.
Recent News – Rakhigarhi (a place in present day Haryana) findings show that people of the Indus Valley Civilization had an origin which was independent. Previously, it was assumed that these people had ancestry from the Steppe pastoral, or Iranian farmer ancestry.
Town Planning
Cities and Towns in the Indus Valley Civilization are known for the planning, grid pattern of streets, proper drainage system, and give a feel of a proto city with many more features.
Some of the major features of the Indus Valley Civilization are as follows –
- Division of City
- Streets
- Drainage System
- Houses
- Building Materials
Based on these features, we will talk about its significance in the Indus Valley Civilization.
Division of City
The city was divided into two parts –
Raised Part (called Citadel): The Citadel part consisted of housing meant for the upper class rulers, and important buildings made for public usage, including workshops, granaries, etc. Citadels were present in the west of the city.
Lower Part: The lower part consisted of houses meant for the common people. It was situated in the eastern part of the city.
Significance
- The presence of two parts in the city shows the presence of a social hierarchy.
- Some of the city also had administrative authority to work on this planning.
- The Public and Private sphere was separate.
Streets
The streets in the city followed a grid pattern. This meant that the streets cut through each other at right angles, and divided the city into several rectangular blocks.
Significance
- The well laid streets show excellent knowledge among the people about urban planning and measurements.
Drainage System
All the houses were connected with a drainage system. The drains were made up of lime, gypsum, mortar etc. The drains were also covered with large brick slabs, helping in easy cleaning of the same.
Significance
- It shows the importance given to health and sanitation among the Harappan people.
Houses
Houses were generally made from burnt bricks. They were often two or more storeys, with no window facing the streets.
Significance
- The 2nd storey was only made when the 1st storey has subsided.
- This shows that the Harappan lived in the place for a long period of time.
Building Materials
Harappans used standard burnt bricks, with the dimensions in the ratio of 1:2:4. This is followed in all the sites present in the Indus Valley Civilization. Please note that no stones were used for building houses in this civilization. Compared to this, the Egyptian civilization used mud-bricks and stones.
Significance
- It can be concluded that there is a presence of a centralized weight and measurement system.
Society during Indus Valley Civilization
We see a lot of patterns in the society of the Indus Valley Civilization among different features. Division of the society is visible. A lot of different clothing patterns are followed in the different phases and parts of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Let’s take a look at the different features of the society, along with its significance.
| Features | Description | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Division in Society | Harappan society consisted of at least three distinct social groups – Ruling class, Rich merchants, and poor laborers living in the lower part of the city | The Division of Labor was present in the society. Harappans also had a well organized administrative machinery. |
| Clothing | Cotton and wool was generally used | Diversity of choices, advancement in weaving of cotton and wool |
| Food Habits | The Harappan societies of Punjab and Singh consumed wheat and barley. People in Suratkoda and Rangpur consumed millets and rice. People also used to consume molluscs and fish. Domestication of animals was done, studies of which in Bhadli and Kotada are present. | The urban settlement near river valleys provided fertile grounds for the production of crops. Harappans had developed advanced agricultural practices. |
| Religion | Harappan believed in the worship of nature. Trees like Peepal, and animals like Bull were also worshiped. Idolatry, in the form of worshiping Mother Goddess, Phallic Symbols, and Pasupati Yogi was also prevalent. | We see a secular society in the Harappan Civilization. There were no temples, except for the presence of the Great Bath. Presence of a religion is unknown. |
| Script and Languages | Also known as the Boustrophedon script, the Harappan Script is mainly pictorial in representation. Each symbol stood for a different word. Symbols like Fish, Birds, and humans were used. The Boustrophedon script was written from right to left, and then left to right, in alternative lines. From the 1700 BCE, the Boustrophedon script disappeared. | According to some recent theories, there are some similarities between Tamil Nadu and Harappan scripts. But since the Boustrophedon script hasn’t been deciphered yet, nothing conclusive can be said. Further, the various evidences of common scripts also shows a great deal of cultural integration in the times of the Indus Valley. |
| Beliefs | Harappans believed in evil forces and ghosts and used amulets as protection against them | This was true about most of the primitive society |
| Burial practices | The dead bodies were preserved because they believed in after life or extended inhumation. The dead bodies were buried in the North-South direction. The bodies were accompanied with food, pottery, jewelry, and other daily items, in anticipation that it would be used in the afterlife. Three types of burials were practiced – Complete burial, Fractional burial and Cremation. | Life after death was a strong belief among the Harappans. The only difference was that the items kept with the dead bodies in the Indus Valley Civilization were not that expensive, as seen in the other contemporary civilizations. |
Economy during Indus Valley Civilization
| Features | Description | Significance |
| Manufacturing | Terracotta: Animal and Human figurines made of terracotta can be seen. There were more female than male figurines. Bangles and Seals were also made of terracotta. Art of Bead-making (Chanhudaro and Lothal), jewelry- gold and silver jewelry. Use of Iron in Harappan times was not present. But the use of Bronze, Silver, Gold and Copper was there. Harappans were the first to use silver in the world. | Common people generally used a large number of terracotta articles. A large number of terracotta articles show that it was used by common people. Metallurgy and alloy production was common, and Harappans were really good at it. Goldsmiths, Bronze-smiths, and Brick-markers – all with specialization of tasks were present. The use of copper artifacts meant cultural preference in all likelihood, and not necessarily technological backwardness. |
| Pottery | Use of Red and Black Pottery (Redware with black designs) is prominent. Potter’s wheels were also used. | Pottery making was an expertise in the Harappan times. Examples include incised pottery, perforated pottery. |
| Agricultural economy | Wheat, Barley, Rice found in Lothal and Rangpur were the main crops. Dates, Cotton and Mustard, the first in the world, were also some crops grown. | We saw an advancement in agriculture in the Harappans. The use of wooden plowshare was prominent. Dams, irrigation canals and well irrigation was also a major practice followed. |
| Trade | Harappans did trade with a lot of foreign civilizations, which include the contemporary ones like Sumeria/Mesopotamia, Central Asia, Persia, Afghanistan, and Dilmun (Bahrain). Trade was done with a barter system. Export items 1. Teak (obtained from Gujrat) 2. Amazonite (Hirapuri, Gujarat) 3. Slate (Kangra) 4. Lead (Kashmir and South India) 5. Copper (from Baluchistan & Rajasthan Khetri mines) Import Items: 1. Jade (from Central Asia) 2. Turquoise (from Khorasan) 3. Lapis Lazuli, Gold, Silver, Tin (from Afghanistan) 4. Gold was also obtained from Iran and Kolar mines in Karnataka) 5. Steatite (Iran) | The presence of strong and advanced trade relations with contemporary civilizations shows that the relations were strong both trade wise, and culturally. Further, Harappan seals are found in Susa, Nippur, Ur, Failaka, Bahrain (Persian Gulf). Mesopotamian three-cylinder seals have been found in Mohenjodaro. |
| Weights and Measures | A binary weight system was followed – 1, 2, 8, 16, 31, 64, 160, 320, 640 and so on. Weights were made of limestone, steatite, limestone, and were cubical in nature. | It shows how standardization and accuracy of weights and measures had developed in the Indus Valley Civilization. |
| Seals | Harappan seals are made up of Steatite. It ranged from ½ inch to 2.5 inch in size. Seals were generally rectangular and square in shape. Seals had animals carved with inscriptions. Use of the humpless bull is most prominent in the seals. | Harappan seals were a mark of property ownership in trade. |
The decline of Indus Valley Civilization
The Indus Valley Civilization declined after 1900 BCE. There are many reasons which have been quoted for the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, although it is unknown.
The various reasons for there decline include –
- Drying of Ghaggar river and increasing aridity (given by DP Agrawal and Sood)
- Aryan Invasion (given by Wheeler & Gordon)
- Earthquake (given by Raikes & Dales)
- Natural Calamity (given by KAR Kennedy)
- Ecological Disturbance (given by Fairchild)
- Low Rainfall (given by Dales and Vatsa)
- Flood (given by Macay and S R Rao)
Recently, a finding with the title “Neological climate anomalies and the Harappan metamorphosis” concluded that climate change could be a major reason for the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Majorily, the changes in precipitation, and hence drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra river was a reason for the decline of crops and urban settlement in Harappan Civilization.
Features of Individual sites in Indus Valley Civilization
- Harappa
- Situated on the banks of Ravi River
- Discovered by Daya Ram Sahni
- It was the first site to be discovered
- Two large rows of six granaries
- Red Sandstone torso of a nude male is found in Harappa
- Coffin burial as evidence has been proved in Harappa.
- Mohenjo-Daro
- Situated on the banks of Indus River
- Discovered by RD Banerji
- Also known as the “Mound of the deads”
- Great Granary is found in Mohenjodaro
- Pasupati Seals is found in this place
- Bronze Dancing girl was discovered in Mohenjodaro
- Steatite image of a bearded priest
- Great Bath
- Bronze statue of bull
- Multi-pillar assembly halls
- Lothal
- Situated on the banks of Bhogava River
- Discovered by SR Rao
- World’s first artificial dockyard is found in Lothal.
- We see evidence of male and female burials in Lothal
- Rice cultivation was prominent in Lothal and Rangpur.
- Terracotta model of boats
- Ivory scale
- Sacrificial Altar at Lothal and Kalibagan
- Dholavira
- Situated on the bank of Khadir bet island
- Discovered by JP Joshi
- Megalith burial
- Warehousing settlement
- Gold rings were present in Dholavira, Mandi, and Daimabad.
- All three phases of Harappan age is seen
- Use of Sandstone and bricks
- Evidence of dams, irrigation, water reservoir, water harvesting system and embankments
- Dholavira has been named as the UNESCO World Heritage Site(India’s 40th )
- Rakhigarhi
- Situated on Ghaggar –Hakra river
- Discovered by Amarendra Nath
- It is the largest Indus Valley Civilization site in India
- We find evidence for domestication of dogs.
- Recent findings show Rakhigarhi doesn’t have the last phase of IVC
- Chanhudaro
- Situated on the banks of Indus river
- Known as the Lancashire of Indus Valley Civilization due to the cotton textile production
- No citadel present
- A Large number of copper tools are found.
- Kalibangan
- Situated on the Ghaggar river in Rajasthan
- Literal meaning is Black Bangles
- Wells are found in every house of Kalibangan
- Mixed cropping was practiced during this time
- We find the earliest example of a ploughed field here.
- Fire Altars, a symbol of the cult of sacrifice, can be found.
- Bhirrana
- Present day Haryana
- Considered the oldest discovered Indus Valley Civilization site
