Coming of Europeans & British Conquest

Table of Contents

Portuguese in India

The Portuguese presence in India dates back to the late 15th century when Vasco da Gama arrived in Calicut in 1498 CE.
He discovered a new sea route from Europe to India by sailing around Africa and reaching the Indian coast.
Upon his arrival, he was welcomed by the Hindu ruler of Calicut, the Zamorin.
Da Gama returned to Portugal the following year with a significant profit from the Indian cargo that was worth 60 times the cost of his expedition.
In 1500 CE, Portuguese explorer Pedro Alvares Cabral arrived in India and Da Gama made a second trip in 1502 CE.
The Portuguese established trading settlements at Calicut, Cochin, and Cannanore.
Francis de Almeida was appointed as the first governor of Portuguese India.
Afonso de Albuquerque became the governor of Portuguese territories in India in 1509 CE.
He made Goa the capital of Portuguese settlements in India by capturing it from the ruler of Bijapur in 1510 CE.
- The Portuguese dominated the entire Asian coast from Hormuz in the Persian Gulf to Malacca in Malaya and the spice islands in Indonesia.
- At the time of Albuquerque’s death, the Portuguese were the strongest naval power in India.
Nino da Cunha captured Diu and Bassein from Bahadur Shah of Gujarat in 1530 CE.
The Portuguese also established settlements at Salsette, Daman and Bombay on the west coast and at San Thome near Madras and Hugli in Bengal on the east coast.
However, by the end of the 16th century, Portuguese power declined in India and they lost all their acquired territories except for Daman, Diu, and Goa.

The Portuguese had a significant impact on India, including introducing tobacco cultivation and establishing the first printing press at Goa in 1556 CE. They also published the first scientific work, “The Indian Medicinal Plants“, at Goa in 1563 CE.

Reasons for the decline of Portuguese power in India

The decline of the Portuguese Empire in India was due to a number of reasons, including:

Weak and Incompetent Governance: The governors who succeeded Afonso de Albuquerque were not as strong and competent, which ultimately led to the decline of the Portuguese in India.
Religious Intolerance: The Portuguese were known for their religious intolerance and forced conversion of the local population to Christianity. This caused a great deal of animosity towards the Portuguese in a country where religious tolerance was the norm.
Self-Serving Administration: The Portuguese administration was more focused on making profits for themselves, which further alienated the people of India. They were also involved in cruel and inhumane acts, including piracy and plunder. All of these actions created a hostile attitude towards the Portuguese.
Competition from European Powers: During the later half of the 16th century, commercial and naval powers like England, Holland, and France all waged a fierce struggle against the Spanish and Portuguese monopoly of world trade. This struggle weakened the Portuguese power in India.
Mughal and Maratha Power: The rise of the Mughal Empire and the growing power of the Marathas limited the Portuguese ability to maintain their trade monopoly in India. For example, they faced conflict with the Mughal power in Bengal in 1631 CE and were driven out of their settlement in Hugli.
Shift of Focus to Brazil: The Portuguese discovered Brazil in Latin America and began to focus more on it than their territories in India.
Spanish Influence: When Portugal came under Spanish rule in 1580 CE, Spanish interests took priority over Portuguese interests, which were eventually marginalized.

Dutch in India

The Dutch East India Company, also known as Vereenigde Oost Indische Compagnie (VOC), was established in 1602 CE.
They set up their first factory in Masulipatnam in Andhra and established trading depots at various places in India such as Surat, Broach, Cambay and Ahmedabad in Gujarat, Cochin in Kerala, Chinsura in Bengal, Patna in Bihar, and Agra in U.P. Pulicat in Tamil Nadu was their main center in India, which was later replaced by Nagapattinam.
In the 17th century, the Dutch won over the Portuguese and became the dominant power in European trade in the East.
They defeated the Portuguese in the Malay straits and the Indonesian islands, and in 1623 defeated English attempts to establish themselves there.
However, the Anglo-Dutch rivalry continued for seven years, and the Dutch gradually lost their settlements to the British.
In 1759, the Dutch were finally defeated by the English in the Battle of Bedara.

British in India

The British Raj was a period of British rule in the Indian subcontinent, lasting from 1858 to 1947.

During this time, the British slowly gained power and consolidated their rule over India through both diplomatic and military means.
Over the course of nearly a century, the British used a combination of tactics, including warfare and administrative policies, to solidify their control over the entire region.
The result was a complete overhaul of Indian society and culture, with British influence remaining even after the eventual independence of India and Pakistan in 1947.

Timeline of British till East India Company

The English Association or Company to trade with the East was established in 1599 CE by a group of merchants known as “The merchant Adventurers.”
Queen Elizabeth I gave the company a royal charter and the exclusive privilege to trade in the East on December 31st, 1600 CE and it became popularly known as the East India Company.
In 1609 CE, Captain William Hawkins arrived at the court of Mughal Emperor Jahangir to seek permission to establish an English trading center at Surat, but it was refused.
However, in 1612 CE, Jahangir permitted the East India Company to set up a factory at Surat.
In 1615 CE, Sir Thomas Roe, who was the ambassador of King James I of England, succeeded in getting an Imperial farman to trade and establish factories in different parts of India.
By 1619 CE, the English had established factories at Agra, Ahmedabad, Baroda, and Broach.
In 1639 CE, Francis Day acquired the site of Madras from the Raja of Chandragiri and built a small fort called Fort St. George around the factory, which soon replaced Masulipatnam as the headquarters of the English on the Coromandel coast.
The English East India Company acquired Bombay from King Charles II in 1668 CE and it became the headquarters of the company on the west coast.
In 1690 CE, an English factory was established at a place called Sutanuti by Job Charnock, which later developed into the city of Calcutta, where Fort William was built and became the capital of British India.
The British settlements in Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta grew into flourishing cities and the British East India Company gained more power and tended to acquire the status of a sovereign state in India.

British Conquest in India

Battle of Plassey

Bengal was the richest and most fertile province in India
East India Company was granted freedom to import/export goods in Bengal without taxes in 1717 under a Mughal Emperor’s royal farman.
Nawabs of Bengal had objections to the English’s interpretation of the farman
Siraj ud Daulah succeeded Alivardi Khan as Nawab in 1756 and had a conflict with the British over the misuse of dastaks.
Siraj ud Daulah seized the English factory at Kasimbazar and occupied Fort William in 1756
The conflict led to the Battle of Plassey in 1757, which was won by the British led by Robert Clive
The victory was due to the treachery of Nawab’s army commander, Mir Jafar.
Siraj ud Daulah was forced to flee, captured, and killed.
English proclaimed Mir Jafar as the new Nawab and were granted the right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, among other rewards.
The battle of Plassey paved the way for British mastery of Bengal and eventually all of India.

Battle of Buxar

Mir Jafar was forced to resign as the Nawab of Bengal in c. 1760 CE and his son-in-law, Mir Qasim was put on the throne.
Mir Qasim emerged as a threat to the English and was defeated in a series of battles in c. 1763 CE.
Mir Qasim formed an alliance with Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh and Shah Alam Ⅱ, the Mughal Emperor.
The three clashed with the Company’s army in the Battle of Buxar on 22nd October c.1764 CE and were thoroughly defeated.
The English military superiority was decisively established.
Robert Clive was appointed as the governor of Bengal in c. 1765 CE.
Clive introduced a new administrative system in Bengal called Dual Government in which the nominal head was the Nawab of Bengal and the real power was in the hands of the British.

Treaty of Allahabad

Province of Awadh returned to Shuja-ud-Daulah, but he had to pay 50 Lakhs to the English and maintain English troops for defense
Shah Alam was forced to grant Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the English and was given a pension of 26 Lakhs per year
Districts of Kara and Allahabad were given to Shah Alam
Mir Jafar was restored as the Nawab of Bengal and after his death, Nizam-ud-Daulah was placed on the throne
British gained supreme control over the administration of Bengal through the Treaty of Allahabad.

Conquest of Mysore

Hyder Ali was born in c. 1721 CE and rose to the position of commander-in-chief of the Mysore army.
He proclaimed himself as the ruler and became Sultan of Mysore.
First Anglo-Mysore War (c. 1767-1769 CE): An alliance of the Nizam of Hyderabad, the Marathas, and the English declared war on Hyder Ali. Hyder Ali won over the Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad and the war ended with the defeat of the British. The Treaty of Madras was signed, restoring each other’s conquests and promising mutual help.
Second Anglo-Mysore War (c. 1780-1784 CE): Hyder Ali declared war on the English after the Treaty of Madras was violated and Mahe, a French possession was attacked. Hyder Ali inflicted defeats on the British and occupied almost the entire Carnatic. Lord Warren Hastings divided the confederacy and made peace with the Marathas and bribed the Nizam. The British under Eyre Coote defeated Hyder Ali at Porto Novo. After Hyder Ali’s death, the war was continued by his son Tipu Sultan.
End of Second Anglo-Mysore War: The war ended with the Treaty of Mangalore, restoring all conquests and liberating prisoners on both sides.
Third Anglo-Mysore War (c. 1790 – 1792 CE)
- Lord Cornwallis isolated Tipu Sultan through diplomacy by winning over Marathas, Nizam, and the rulers of Travancore and Coorg
- War breaks out between English and Tipu, and ends in Tipu’s defeat in c. 1792 CE
- Treaty of Seringapatam was signed, with Tipu losing half of his territories (Malabar, Coorg, Dindugal, Baramahal), paying a war indemnity of 3 crore rupees, and surrendering two of his sons as hostages until indemnity is paid
- The strength of Mysore was reduced but not extinguished, Tipu was defeated but not destroyed
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (c. 1798 – 1799 CE)
- Lord Wellesley tries to persuade Tipu to accept the subsidiary alliance and dismiss the French, receive an English envoy, and make terms with the Company and its allies
- Tipu ignores Wellesley’s letters and the fourth Anglo-Mysore war started
- Bombay army under General Stuart invades Mysore from the west, Madras army under Arthur Wellesley forces Tipu to retreat to the capital Srirangapattanam
- Tipu fights bravely but dies in the battle
- The central part of Mysore was given to Krishna Raja of the Wadiar dynasty, the remaining parts were divided between the British and Nizam, Tipu’s family was sent to the fort of Vellore.

British Conquest of Marathas

First Anglo-Maratha War (c. 1775 – 1782 CE)

Madhava Rao (Maratha Peshwa) died and was succeeded by his younger brother, Narayan Rao
Narayan Rao was murdered by his uncle Raghunath Rao who announced himself as the next Peshwa
Maratha leaders appointed Madhava Rao Narayana, the infant son of Narayan Rao as the Peshwa
Raghoba went to the British for help in obtaining Peshwaship
The British authorities in Bombay concluded the Treaty of Surat with Raghunath Rao (c. 1775 CE)
Battle at Talegaon (c. 1776 CE) was fought with Marathas defeating the British
Treaty of Purander (c. 1776 CE) was signed to the advantage of Marathas
British troops defeated Maratha chief, Mahadaji Scindia (c. 1781 CE) and captured Gwalior
Treaty of Salbai signed between Warren Hastings and Mahadaji Scindia (c. 1782 CE)
Madhav Rao Ⅱ was accepted as the Peshwa
Provided the British twenty years of peace with the Marathas
Allowed the British to exert pressure on Mysore with the help of the Marathas to recover their territories from Hyder Ali.

Second Anglo-Maratha War (c. 1803-1805 CE)

Treaty of Bassein (c. 1802 CE) signed between the British and Maratha leader Baji Rao Ⅱ after infighting among Maratha leaders
- Recognized Baji Rao Ⅱ as head of the Maratha kingdom and British control over foreign policy
- Marathas considered it a surrender of independence
Forces of Raghoji Bhonsle and Daulat Rao Scindia united against the British, but defeated by Arthur Wellesley at Assaye near Aurangabad (c. 1803 CE)
- Bhonsle was forced to give up the province of Cuttack in Orissa by the Treaty of Deogaon
Lord Lake defeated Scindia’s army at Laswari and occupied Aligarh, Delhi, and Agra
- took Shah Alam, the Mughal Emperor under his protection
Yeshwant Rao Holkar proved more than a match for the British and remained unsubdued.

Third Anglo-Maratha War (c. 1817 – 1818 CE)

Desperate Last Attempt: The second Anglo-Maratha war had shattered the power of the Maratha chiefs but not their spirit. They made a desperate last attempt to regain their independence and old prestige in c. 1818 CE.
- Attack on British Residency: The Peshwa attacked the British Residency at Poona in c. 1817 CE but was defeated.
- Refusal to Accept Treaty of Nagpur: Appa Sahib (the Bhonsle chief) refused to accept the Treaty of Nagpur, which he had signed with the British in c. 1816 CE. According to this treaty, Nagpur came under the control of the company.
- Battle of Sitabaldi: Appa Sahib fought the British in the Battle of Sitabaldi in November 1817 CE, but was defeated.
- Defeat of Holkar: Holkar too was defeated by the British on 21st December 1817 CE at Baroda.
Dream of Maratha Confederacy Shattered: By December c.1818 CE the dream of a mighty Maratha Confederacy was finally shattered.
Results of the War:
- Pensioned off Peshwa: The Peshwa Baji Rao Ⅱ was pensioned off at Bithur in Kanpur. His territories were annexed and the enlarged Presidency of Bombay came into existence in this region.
- Acceptance of Subsidiary Forces: Holkar and Bhonsle accepted Subsidiary forces.
- Small State of Satara Created: To satisfy the Maratha pride, a small state of Satara was created under Pratap Singh, a descendant of Shivaji who ruled it as a complete dependent of the British.
British Control of Indian Subcontinent: By c. 1818 CE, the entire Indian subcontinent, except Punjab and Sindh was brought under British Control.

The Consolidation of British Power (1818-1857 CE)

The British completed the task of conquering the whole of India and consolidating their power, with the annexation of various states including Awadh, the central provinces, and several other petty states.

The Conquest of Sindh

The conquest of Sindh was driven by Anglo-Russian rivalry and British fears of a potential Russian attack on India through Afghanistan and Persia.
The treaty in 1832 opened the roads and rivers of Sindh to British trade, while the Subsidiary Alliance signed in 1839 forced the chiefs of Sindh, known as Amirs, to sign.
In 1843, after a brief campaign led by Sir Charles Napier, Sindh was officially annexed. Napier became the first Governor of Sindh.
The annexation of Sindh was met with resistance, including the Baluchi attack on the British resident and the Battle of Miani and Dabo, which were both won by Napier.

The Conquest of Punjab

The death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839 was followed by political instability and rapid changes of government in Punjab.
British encirclement of Punjab began in 1833 with the appointment of British residents at Ludhiana and Sindh.
The First Anglo-Sikh War took place from 1845-1846 and consisted of a series of battles including the Battle of Muduks, the Battle of Ferozpur, the Battle of Buddewal, and the Battle of Sobraon/Guns.
The Treaty of Lahore signed in 1846 gave the British Jalandhar Doab and a payment of 1.5 crore.
The Treaty of Bhairowal (also known as the Second Treaty of Lahore) signed in 1846 established a regency council for Punjab, removed Rani Jind Kaur, and stationed a British force in Lahore, with the Sikhs required to pay 22 lacs.
The Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1848-1849 resulted in the annexation of Punjab by Lord Dalhousie, with Dalip Singh and Maharani Jind Kaur transported to England. A board of three commissioners was established and later abolished, with a chief commissioner for Punjab, Sir John Lawrence appointed in 1853.

Reasons For British Supremacy In India:

Superior Arms and Military strategy: The British had an advantage in the weaponry and military strategy over the Indian forces.
- Their muskets and cannons were faster, more accurate, and had a greater range.
- The Indian rulers who imported European arms failed to adopt European military tactics, making them imitators rather than innovators.
Loyalty, Military discipline, and regular salary: The British army was known for its strict regime of discipline and loyalty, which was achieved through regular salaries and strict selection procedures for its officers and soldiers.
- On the other hand, the Indian rulers lacked the funds to pay salaries regularly and were dependent on personal retinues or mercenary forces, which were not always disciplined or loyal.
Procedure for the Selection of Officers: The British selected their officers and soldiers based on reliability and skills, rather than heredity, caste, or clan.
- On the other hand, Indian rulers chose their administrators and military officers based on personal relationships and caste, disregarding merit and ability.
Quality of leadership: British leaders like Robert Clive, Warren Hastings, Elphinstone, and Munro showed exceptional leadership skills.
- The British also had a strong second line of leadership, such as Sir Eyre Coote, Lord Lake, and Arthur Wellesley, who fought for their country and its cause.
- In contrast, Indian leaders like Haider Ali, Tipu Sultan, Madhu Rao, Sindhia, and Jaswant Rao Holkar were brilliant but lacked a strong second line of leadership.
Strong Financial Backup: The British had ample financial support from its shareholders and the wealth generated from trade, which allowed the government to finance its wars in India.
Lack of National Pride and Unity: The Indian rulers lacked a unified political nationalism, which was masterfully exploited by the British to engage them in infighting.
- The absence of national pride and unity among the Indian rulers allowed the British to gradually establish their empire in India.
- The weakened Mughal Empire, the challenges posed by the Marathas, and the invasion of Nadir Shah of Persia, all contributed to the British becoming the political masters of India.
- The British employed methods such as the Subsidiary Alliance and Doctrine of Lapse to expand and consolidate their empire.

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