Science and Technology in Medieval India – UPSC Notes – Art and Culture

In the medieval era, scientific and technological progress in India unfolded along two distinct trajectories: one rooted in established traditions, and the other shaped by the novel influences emanating from Islamic and European interactions. Read in detail about Science and Technology in Medieval India!

During this period, the longstanding indigenous classical learning experienced a setback, prompting a shift towards the educational patterns prevalent in Arab countries. Consequently, the establishment of Maktabs and Madrasas, institutions that received royal patronage, became prominent.

In addition to these educational developments, large workshops known as karkhanas were set up to supply provisions, stores, and equipment to the royal household and government departments. These karkhanas not only functioned as manufacturing hubs but also served as centers for imparting technical and vocational training to the youth.

Science and Technology in Medieval India in the Field of Mathematics

During this period, significant contributions emerged in the field of Mathematics. Notably, Narayana Pandit gained renown for his mathematical works, including Ganitakaumudi and Bijaganitavatamsa. In Gujarat, Gangadhara authored influential treatises such as Lilavati Karamdipika, Suddhantadipika, and Lilavati Vyakhya, providing rules for trigonometric terms like sine, cosine, tangent, and cotangent.

Nilakantha Somasutvan produced Tantrasamgraha, a work that also encompassed rules for trigonometrical functions. Ganesa Daivajna, in turn, authored Buddhivilasini, a commentary on Lilavati, enriched with numerous illustrations.

Krishna of the Valhalla family contributed to the field with Navankuraon, an elaboration of Bhaskara-II’s Bijaganit, focusing on the rules of indeterminate equations of the first and second orders.

Additionally, Nilakantha Jyotirvida compiled Tajik, introducing a plethora of Persian technical terms to the mathematical discourse of the time.

Science and Technology in Medieval India in the Field of Biology

Similarly, there were advancements in the field of Biology. Hamsadeva compiled a work entitled Mriga-Paksi-Shastra in the 13th century, providing a general account of some animals and birds related to hunting.

Jahangir, in his work Tuzuk-i-jahangiri, recorded his observations and experiments on breeding and hybridization.

Science and Technology in Medieval India in the Field of Chemistry

An important application of Chemistry was in the production of paper. The paper-making technique was relatively consistent throughout the country, varying only in the preparation of pulp from different raw materials.

The Mughals possessed knowledge of the production of gunpowder and its use in gunnery, showcasing another application of Chemistry. The work Sukraniti, attributed to Sukracarya, describes how gunpowder can be prepared using saltpeter, sulphur, and charcoal in different ratios for use in various types of guns.

The work Ain-i-akbari speaks of the regulation of Perfume (attar) in the office of Akbar.

Science and Technology in Medieval India in the Field of Field of Astronomy

In astronomy, a multitude of commentaries addressing established astronomical notions emerged. Mehendra Suri, a court astronomer of Emperor Firoz Shah, developed the astronomical instrument ‘Yantraja’. Paramesvara and Mahabhaskariya, renowned families of astronomers and almanac-makers, hailed from Kerala.

Nilakantha Somasutvan produced a commentary on Aryabhatiyaa, while Kamalakar delved into Islamic astronomical ideas, establishing himself as an authority on Islamic knowledge. Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh-II of Jaipur, a notable patron of Astronomy, established five astronomical observatories (Jantar Mantar) in Delhi, Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura, and Jaipur.

Field of Field of Medicine

The Ayurveda system of medicine faced challenges in progressing as vigorously as in ancient times due to a lack of royal patronage. However, significant treatises on Ayurveda, such as the Sarangdhara Samhita and Chikitsasamgraha by Vangasena, were compiled.

The Sarangdhara Samhita, written in the 13th century, included the use of opium in its material medica and advocated urine examination for diagnostic purposes. The Rasachikitsa system primarily dealt with a variety of mineral medicines, both mercurial and non-mercurial.

The Siddha system, prevalent in Tamil Nadu, was attributed to reputed Siddhas who were believed to have developed life-prolonging compositions rich in mineral medicines.

The Unani Tibb system of medicine flourished in medieval India. Ali-bin Rabban summarized Greek and Indian medical knowledge in the book Firdausu-Hikmat. Introduced to India by Muslims around the 11th century, Unani medicine found patronage for its growth.

Hakim Diya Muhammad compiled Majinye Diyae, incorporating Arabic, Persian, and Ayurvedic medical knowledge. Emperor Firoz Shah Tughalaq wrote Tibbe Firozshahi, and Tibbi Aurangzebi, dedicated to Aurangzeb, was based on Ayurvedic sources. Nuruddin Muhammad’s Musalajati-Darshikohi, dedicated to Darashikoh, explored Greek medicine and included a comprehensive section on Ayurvedic material medical.

Field of Agriculture

In the medieval period, the pattern of agricultural practices remained largely consistent with early India. Noteworthy changes occurred with the introduction of new crops, trees, and horticultural plants by foreign traders.

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, several significant plants were introduced to India, including tobacco, chillies, potato, guava, custard apple, cashew, and pineapple.

The Jesuits of Goa played a pivotal role in the medieval agricultural landscape by introducing systematic mango-grafting in the mid-sixteenth century.

To fortify agriculture during this period, the State implemented measures such as the introduction of a system of land measurement and land classification. This system proved beneficial for both rulers and tillers, providing a solid foundation for agricultural development.

FAQs on Science and Technology in Medieval India

1. How did educational patterns change in medieval India, and what institutions gained prominence?

• Answer: The shift towards Arab educational patterns led to the establishment of Maktabs and Madrasas, which received royal patronage.

2. What were the karkhanas, and what role did they play in medieval India?

• Answer: Karkhanas were large workshops serving as manufacturing hubs and providing technical training. They supplied provisions, stores, and equipment to the royal household and government departments.

3. Who were some significant mathematicians in medieval India, and what were their contributions?

• Answer: Mathematicians like Narayana Pandit, Gangadhara, Nilakantha Somasutvan, Ganesa Daivajna, and Krishna made notable contributions in fields such as trigonometry and indeterminate equations.

4. What advancements occurred in the field of Biology during medieval India?

• Answer: Hamsadeva compiled “Mriga-Paksi-Shastra,” offering a general account of animals and birds related to hunting, while Jahangir recorded observations and experiments on breeding and hybridization in “Tuzuk-i-jahangiri.”

5. How was Chemistry applied in medieval India, particularly in the production of paper and gunpowder?

• Answer: Chemistry was applied in consistent paper-making techniques and the production of gunpowder, as described in works like Sukraniti. The Ain-i-akbari also detailed the regulation of Perfume (attar).

6. Who were some notable astronomers in medieval India, and what contributions did they make?

• Answer: Mehendra Suri, Paramesvara, Mahabhaskariya, Nilakantha Somasutvan, Kamalakar, and Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh-II were notable astronomers. Jai Singh established five astronomical observatories (Jantar Mantar) across India.

7. How did the Ayurveda system of medicine evolve in medieval India, and what were some significant treatises?

• Answer: Despite challenges, treatises like Sarangdhara Samhita and Chikitsasamgraha were compiled. The Siddha and Unani Tibb systems also flourished, with works like Firdausu-Hikmat, Majinye Diyae, and Musalajati-Darshikohi.

8. What changes occurred in agricultural practices during medieval India?

• Answer: New crops, trees, and horticultural plants were introduced by foreign traders. The Jesuits of Goa played a role in introducing systematic mango-grafting, and state measures like land measurement and classification supported agricultural development.

9. Which foreign traders introduced significant plants to India during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries?

• Answer: Foreign traders introduced plants such as tobacco, chillies, potato, guava, custard apple, cashew, and pineapple during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

10. How did the state contribute to agricultural development in medieval India?

• Answer: The state implemented measures like the introduction of a system of land measurement and classification, providing a solid foundation for agricultural development during the medieval period.

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