Factors Affecting Indian Agriculture – UPSC Indian Geography Notes

The agricultural practices, cropping patterns, and their productivity are closely determined by the geo-climatic, socioeconomic, and cultural-political factors. In fact, the Indian Agriculture of any region is influenced by the following factors:

• Physical factors: Terrain, topography, climate, and soil.
• Institutional Factors: Land tenure, land tenancy, size of the landholdings, size of fields, and land reforms.
• Infrastructural factors: Irrigation, electricity, roads, credit and marketing, storage facilities, crop insurance, and research.
• Technological Factors: High-yielding varieties (new seeds) introduced in the Green Revolution, chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, and farm machinery.

These factors individually and collectively have their impact on the cropping patterns and on the level of agricultural development and yield of crops in a region.

Physical factors

The physical factors influencing the agriculture of any region encompass terrain, topography, climate, and soil. These elements exert diverse influences on the agricultural productivity of a region.

It is important to note that these factors do not operate in isolation; rather, the agricultural activity of a place is shaped by the interplay of various physical factors. The following sections delve into the specifics of these various physical factors:

Terrain, Topography, and Altitude

• Agricultural patterns are contingent upon geo-ecological conditions, including terrain, topography, slope, and altitude.
• Paddy cultivation necessitates level fields for standing water, while tea plantations thrive in undulating topography, avoiding standing water that could damage them.
• Orchards of coconut flourish at lower altitudes near sea level, while tropical and sub-tropical apple orchards perform well at altitudes above 1500 meters.
• Cultivation at 3500 meters in tropical and subtropical latitudes is rare due to rarefied air, low pressure, low temperature, and oxygen shortage, hindering both crop cultivation and dairy cattle keeping.
• High mountainous tracts often feature immature soils due to erosion, making them thin and unsuitable for agriculture.
• Topography influences agriculture through soil erosion, tillage difficulty, and transportation challenges.
• Mechanization of agriculture is constrained on rough, hilly lands where agricultural machinery use is impossible.
• Topographical features impact rainfall distribution, with windward sides receiving more rainfall than leeward sides (e.g., Western Ghats).
• Rainfall levels in a region determine suitable crops; for instance, jute can grow in West Bengal but not in Rajasthan due to varying rainfall.
• Altitude and slope aspect (sun-facing or not) determine agricultural activity; steeper slopes may require terrace farming.
• Surface nature affects agricultural activities; gullied land is least conducive due to erosion and nutrient deficiencies (e.g., Chambal ravines affecting arable land in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh).

Climate

• Climate is a crucial determinant of agricultural land use and cropping patterns among physical factors.
• Temperature is a key factor controlling all forms of agriculture; areas lacking heat are deficient in agricultural productivity.
• Man cannot economically create temperature on a large scale, making it a critical and uncontrollable element of climate.
• Temperature influences the growth of vegetation by determining the length of the vegetative period.
• Successful agriculture necessitates a sufficiently long summer, impacting the overall growth of crops.
• In lower latitudes, where winters are not cold enough to impede vegetation growth, nearly the entire year serves as the growing period.
• Agricultural operations in lower latitudes are timed based on the supply of rainfall, a key consideration in planning activities.
• In higher latitudes, the shortness of summer is compensated by the longer duration of the day, ensuring adequate heat for crop ripening.
• The climate of a region crucial for plant growth encompasses various factors.

Temperature

• The crops’ growth conditions, patterns, and combinations are tightly regulated by prevailing temperature and precipitation conditions.
• Agricultural scientists establish that each crop has a specific zero temperature, below which it cannot grow, and an optimal temperature at which it exhibits maximum vigor.
• For instance, wheat thrives in the cool climatic conditions of Punjab in November-December but cannot be grown in the warm conditions of Kerala during the same period.
• Each stage of crop life, including germination, foliation, blossoming, or fructification, has specific zero and optimum temperature requirements.
• The upper limit for plant growth is 60 degrees C, and crops dry up under high-temperature conditions if moisture is insufficient.
• Chilling and freezing temperatures adversely affect the germination, growth, and ripening of crops.
• Crops like rice, sugarcane, jute, cotton, chilli, and tomatoes are susceptible to damage or death due to frost.
• Minimum temperature requirements: wheat and barley (5 degrees C), maize (10 degrees C), and rice (20 degrees C).
• The northern limit for regions where date palm bears ripe fruit aligns closely with a mean annual temperature of 19 degrees C.
• Grape orchards are limited by temperature, with grapes ripening only in countries where the mean temperature from April to October exceeds 15 degrees C.
• Winter crops like wheat and barley thrive in a mean daily temperature range of 15 degrees C to 25 degrees C.
• Tropical crops like cocoa, coffee, spices, squash, rubber, and tobacco require over 18 degrees C even in the coldest months, while crops like wheat, gram, peas, lentil, potato, mustard, and rapeseed need a temperature of about 20 degrees C during growth and development and higher (over 25 degrees C) during sowing and harvesting.
• Each crop has distinct temperature and precipitation requirements during various growth stages, including germination, maturity, harvesting, etc.

Moisture

• All crops require moisture, obtained from either rainfall or irrigation from the soil.
• Within broad temperature limits, moisture surpasses other climatic factors in importance for crop production.
• Optimal moisture conditions, akin to optimal temperature conditions, are crucial for crop development.
• Excessive water in the soil disrupts chemical and biological processes, limiting oxygen and increasing the formation of toxic compounds harmful to plant roots.
• Soil with an excess of water leads to stunted growth of plants; addressing inadequate oxygen can be achieved through drainage practices in poorly drained areas.
• Heavy rainfall can directly damage plants, interfere with flowering and pollination, and cause lodging in cereal crops, making harvest difficult and promoting spoilage and diseases.
• At the maturity of crops like wheat, gram, millets, oilseeds, and mustards, heavy rainfall results in grain and fodder loss.
• Indian farmers nationwide often face challenges due to rain failure or the impacts of floods.

Drought

• Drought inflicts devastating consequences on crops, yields, and production.
• Soil drought occurs when the water needed for transpiration and direct evaporation surpasses the available soil water, damaging crops with inadequate moisture supply.
• Drought-prone areas in India include Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Bundelkhand (U.P.), Uttarakhand, J&K, southwest Punjab, and Haryana.
• Agriculture in regions with average annual rainfall less than 75 cm is considered a gamble on monsoon, leading to drought vulnerability.
• In 2009, erratic monsoon resulted in drought in over 200 districts in India, with the Vidarbha region experiencing high farmer suicides due to crop failure, attributed to inadequate irrigation facilities.
• The incidence and intensity of drought can be determined by annual, seasonal, and diurnal rainfall distribution. Different plants have varying moisture requirements.
• Dryland farming is practiced in drought-prone areas of India, while regions with higher rainfall engage in intensive agriculture, particularly of paddy crops.

Snow

• The presence of snow lowers ground temperature, impeding germination and crop growth.
• Land under snow cannot be readied for sowing due to permafrost.
• Snow melting can lead to hazardous floods during the summer, adversely affecting crops, livestock, and land property.

Winds

• Winds exert both direct and indirect effects on crops.
• Direct winds can break plant structures, dislodge cereals, fodder, and cash crops, and strip fruit and nut crops from trees in high winds.
• Small plants may be entirely covered by windblown dust or sand.
• The indirect effect of winds involves the transport of moisture and heat in the air.
• Wind movement increases evaporation and transpiration, potentially leaving plants lacking a sufficient amount of moisture.

Soils

• In agricultural operations, soil stands out as the most crucial determining physical factor.
• Soil determines cropping patterns, their associations, and overall production.
• The fertility, texture, structure, and humus contents of the soil directly influence crops and their productivity.
• Alluvial soils in river valleys are favorable for wheat, barley, gram, oilseeds, pulses, and sugarcane, while clayey loam soil in the Ganga-Brahmaputra deltaic regions yields a good harvest of rice and jute.
• Black soil in Maharashtra is renowned for cotton, while sandy soil in Rajasthan is suitable for guar and various pulses (green gram, black-gram, red-gram, etc.).
• Saline and alkaline soils are agriculturally useless unless reclaimed by chemical fertilizers and biological manures. Examples include soils in Punjab and Haryana.

Institutional factors

Land Holdings

• The average size of landholding has steadily decreased due to a rising number of landholders. From 2.28 hectares in 1970-71, it plummeted to 1.15 hectares in 2010-11.

• In India, over 82 percent of farmers fall into the small and marginal farmers category, owning less than 2 hectares of land (GOI, 2011).
• These tiny holdings among the majority of farmers are deemed non-viable and unsustainable, posing a challenge for a country with a large population to feed. The continuous decline in average land holdings exacerbates this issue.
• Challenges include fragmentation of landholdings, a lack of off-farm occupations, and inheritance laws mandating equal property division among heirs, leading to small land blocks.
• Despite these challenges, small and marginal farmers face a poor economic base, adversely impacting the growth of the agriculture sector.
• The high fragmentation of land hampers the widespread adoption of modern technology in agriculture.

Agricultural Credit

• Credit serves as the backbone for every sector of the economy, and it is a crucial prerequisite for farmers to fulfill both investment and working capital requirements.
• Similar to other sectors, availability of credit for agriculture should be easy, adequate, and timely. Despite a vast network of Rural Financial Institutions (RFIs), a significant portion of the rural population in India is consistently overlooked by the formal banking sector.
• In India, challenges such as the long gestation period, a lack of trained technical staff to identify potential activities, poor eligibility criteria, and security issues contribute to the inadequate credit flow to the agriculture sector.

Conclusion

The intricacies of agriculture underscore the significance of various interrelated factors. The physical elements, such as terrain, topography, climate, and soil, shape agricultural practices and cropping patterns. The impact of institutional factors like land tenure, size of holdings, and land reforms is evident in the agricultural landscape. Infrastructural considerations, including irrigation, electricity, and research, play a pivotal role. Moreover, technological advancements, such as high-yielding varieties and farm machinery, have transformed agricultural productivity. Climate, with its variables like temperature, rainfall, and drought, is a critical determinant. The moisture content in soil, influenced by factors like snow, winds, and the consequences of drought, also significantly affects crop growth. Landholding sizes and credit accessibility further contribute to the complex agricultural ecosystem. Addressing these factors collectively is essential for fostering sustainable and resilient agricultural practices that can meet the demands of a growing population.

FAQs on Factors Affecting Indian Agriculture

1. What are the key physical factors influencing agriculture?

Answer: The crucial physical factors include terrain, topography, climate, and soil, all of which significantly shape agricultural practices and cropping patterns.

2. How do institutional factors impact agriculture?

Answer: Institutional factors, such as land tenure, size of holdings, and land reforms, play a vital role in influencing the agricultural landscape, determining the organization of farms and their productivity.

3. What role does technology play in agriculture?

Answer: Technological advancements, including high-yielding varieties and farm machinery, have transformed agricultural productivity, contributing to increased yields and efficiency in farming practices.

4. How does climate influence agriculture?

Answer: Climate, with variables like temperature, rainfall, and drought, is a critical determinant in shaping agricultural patterns, affecting crop growth, and determining suitable regions for specific crops.

5. What challenges do small landholdings and credit accessibility pose to agriculture?

Answer: Small landholdings and challenges in credit accessibility contribute to the complexity of the agricultural ecosystem. Limited access to credit and fragmented landholdings can impede sustainable and resilient agricultural practices.

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