Crown Rule (1858-1947) – UPSC Notes – Indian Polity

The Crown rule in India means that the British government directly controlled India from 1857 to 1947. After the 1857 Revolt, the British Crown took over the administrative power from the East India Company, and this period of direct rule is called “Crown Rule.” It continued until India gained independence in 1947.

What is Crown Rule?

Crown Rule in India means the British government directly governing the Indian subcontinent. It started in 1858 after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The authority of the East India Company was handed over to the British Crown under Queen Victoria. Crown Rule continued until 1947 when India became independent.

The History of Crown Rule in India

Crown Rule denotes the period of British colonial rule from 1858 to 1947, during which the British Crown directly governed the country.

This era followed the Revolt of 1857, also known as the Indian Mutiny or the First War of Indian Independence, a significant uprising against British rule. Throughout the Crown Rule, the British government implemented strategies to strengthen its control over India and advance British interests.

This involved establishing a centralized administration, introducing English education and Western legal systems, building railways and telegraph lines, and developing the Indian Army. However, these policies were frequently criticized for being exploitative and oppressive towards the Indian population.

Various Acts & Constitutional Experiments Under Crown Rule

Government of India Act, 1858

The Government of India Act of 1858 was enacted following the events of the 1857 Revolt, often referred to as the First War of Independence or the sepoy mutiny. This significant legislative measure, known as the Act for the Good Government of India, marked a pivotal moment in British governance over India.

Key provisions of the Act included:

1. Transfer of Authority: The Act transferred government authorities, territory, and income to the British Crown, signifying a direct assertion of control.
2. Abolition of Dual Governance: The Act abolished the Board of Control and the Court of Directors, thereby putting an end to the dual governance system that had been in place.
3. Administrative Changes: It introduced a novel position, the Secretary of State for India, who held full authority and control over the Indian government.
4. Council of India: The Act established a 15-member Council of India to assist the Secretary of State in governing India. This council played a crucial role in shaping policies and decisions concerning the Indian subcontinent.

Indian Councils Act, 1861

The Indian Councils Act of 1861 marked a significant step in India’s constitutional history, introducing representative institutions and involving Indians in the legislative process. Key features and implications of this Act include:

1. Representation for Indians: The Act mandated the inclusion of Indians in the legislative process by appointing them as non-official members of the larger council, fostering a more inclusive approach to governance.
2. Decentralization Movement: It initiated the decentralization movement by returning legislative powers to the Bombay and Madras Presidencies, reversing the centralizing trend that had begun with the Regulating Act of 1773 and reached its peak with the Charter Act of 1833.
3. Formation of Legislative Councils: The Act paved the way for the creation of new legislative councils for Bengal, the North-Western Provinces, and Punjab. These councils were established in 1862, 1886, and 1897, respectively.
4. Viceroy’s Authority: It granted the Viceroy the authority to issue rules and directives to streamline the conduct of business in the council, enhancing the administrative efficiency of the legislative process.
5. ‘Portfolio’ Approach: The Act acknowledged Lord Canning’s ‘portfolio’ approach, which he introduced in 1859, allowing individual council members to oversee specific government departments.
6. Emergency Powers: In times of emergency, the Viceroy was authorized to promulgate ordinances without the approval of the legislative council. However, such ordinances had a limited lifespan of six months.

Indian Councils Act, 1892

The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was influenced by the emergence of the Indian National Congress in 1885 and the resolutions advocating administrative reforms. This Act brought about notable changes:

1. Representative Government: In response to the Indian National Congress’s call for administrative reforms, the Act facilitated a move towards a representative form of government. It allowed the head of government to appoint a specified proportion of council members, aiming to include diverse voices in the decision-making process.
2. Parliamentary Governance: The Act laid the groundwork for a parliamentary style of governance by granting legislators the ability to raise questions and participate in debates on the budget. This marked a shift towards a more participatory and accountable system.
3. Increased Internal Autonomy: The Act expanded the powers of provincial legislatures, contributing to increased internal autonomy. This move was aimed at providing regions with a greater say in local governance and decision-making.

Indian Councils Act, 1909

The Indian Councils Act of 1909 was introduced in response to the growing support for radicals in the Indian national movement. Key features and impacts of this Act include:

1. Addressing Radicals: Formulated to counter the rising influence of radicals in the Indian national movement, the Act aimed to meet the demands of the Indian National Congress for greater Indian participation in the country’s governance.
2. Morley-Minto Reforms: Also known as the Morley-Minto Reforms, the Act was developed by Secretary of State Lord Morley and Viceroy Lord Minto, reflecting their collaborative efforts.
3. Expansion of Legislative Councils: The Act significantly increased the size of both the Central and Provincial Legislative Councils, allowing for a broader representation of voices in the decision-making process.
4. Official and Non-official Majorities: While maintaining an official majority in the Central Legislative Council, the Act permitted non-official majorities in provincial legislatures, providing more opportunities for non-official representatives.
5. Enhanced Deliberative Powers: It enhanced the deliberative powers of legislative councils at both the central and provincial levels, giving them a more active role in shaping policies.
6. Inclusion in Executive Councils: The Act allowed the inclusion of Indians on the Viceroy’s and Governors’ executive councils, promoting greater Indian representation in the highest decision-making bodies.
7. Communal Representation: Introducing the concept of a “distinct electorate,” the Act established communal representation for Muslims. This formalized communalism, and Lord Minto became known as the “Father of the Communal Electorate.”
8. Separation of Entities: The Act separated presidential corporations, trade chambers, colleges, and zamindars, aiming to create distinct entities and promote representation from various sectors.

Government of India Act, 1919

The Government of India Act of 1919, also known as the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms (named after the Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, and Viceroy Lord Chelmsford), came into effect in 1921. This significant legislation introduced several key changes:

1. Decentralization: The Act aimed to reduce central control over the provinces by clearly defining and separating central and provincial subjects.
2. Division of Provincial Matters: Provincial matters were categorized as “transferred” and “reserved.” Transferred topics were managed by the governor with ministers accountable to the Legislative Council, while reserved matters were handled by the governor and his executive council without reporting to the Legislative Council. This dual governing structure was termed “dyarchy,” meaning “double rule.”
3. Communal Representation: The Act expanded communal representation by establishing distinct electorates for Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, and Europeans. It introduced restricted franchises based on property, taxation, or education.
4. High Commissioner for India: A new office, the High Commissioner for India in London, was established. Some tasks previously handled by the Secretary of State for India were delegated to this office.
5. Provincial Budget Autonomy: The Act detached provincial budgets from the central budget for the first time. Provincial legislatures were authorized to formulate and implement their own budgets, enhancing provincial autonomy in financial matters.

Government of India Act, 1935

The Government of India Act of 1935 represented a significant stride towards establishing a fully accountable government in India. Notable features of this comprehensive legislation included:

1. Comprehensive Document: The Act was a detailed document, comprising 321 sections and ten schedules, outlining various aspects of governance.
2. All India Federation: It proposed the formation of an All India Federation with provinces and princely states as its components, envisioning a unified structure for governance.
3. Three Lists of Competencies: The Act categorized competencies into three lists:
   • The Federal List (for the Centre, including 59 items),
   • The Provincial List (for provinces, containing 54 items), and
   • The Concurrent List (for both, with 36 items), clearly defining the distribution of powers between the Center and the units.
4. Residuary Powers: Residuary powers were vested in the Viceroy. However, the proposed All India Federation did not materialize due to the reluctance of princely states to join it.
5. Abolition of Dyarchy: The Act abolished dyarchy in the provinces, replacing it with ‘provincial autonomy.’ Provinces were granted the authority to function as autonomous administrative units within their designated boundaries.

Indian Independence Act of 1947

The India Independence Act of 1947 resulted from the declaration by then-British Prime Minister Clement Atlee, signaling the conclusion of British rule in India and the acceptance of the Mountbatten Plan by the Congress and the Muslim League. Key features of the Act include:

1. End of British Rule: The Act marked the effective conclusion of British authority in India, establishing the country as an independent and sovereign state.
2. Division of India: It called for the division of India and the creation of two sovereign dominions, India and Pakistan. Pakistan had the option to withdraw from the British Commonwealth.
3. Authority of Constituent Assemblies: The Constituent Assemblies of both dominions were granted the authority to legislate for their respective regions until new constitutions were formulated and implemented.
4. Elimination of Secretary of State for India Post: The Act abolished the position of the Secretary of State for India, transferring the responsibilities to the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Affairs.
5. End of British Supremacy: It announced the termination of British supremacy over Indian princely kingdoms and the dissolution of treaty links with tribal territories on August 15, 1947.
6. Princely Kingdom Options: Indian princely kingdoms were given the choice to join the Dominion of India, the Dominion of Pakistan, or remain independent.
7. Constitutional Leaders: The Governor-General of India and provincial governors were designated as the constitutional leaders of the states.
8. Changes in Civil Services: The Act concluded the appointment of the Secretary of State for India to civil services and the reservation of jobs.

The initiation of Crown Rule in India represented a crucial juncture in the struggle for freedom. The Revolt of 1857 transcended being just a Sepoy Mutiny; it mirrored the discontent, resentment, and accumulated grievances of the Indian populace against foreign rulers. Clearly, there was a demand for a transformation in the way individuals were governed. The events of 1857 laid bare the need for a shift in the prevailing governance structures, sparking a call for change in the management of Indian affairs.

FAQs on Company Rule (1858-1947)

1. What is Crown Rule in India?

Crown Rule in India refers to the direct governance of the Indian subcontinent by the British government. It commenced in 1858 following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, with the transfer of authority from the East India Company to the British Crown under Queen Victoria. This period persisted until India gained independence in 1947.

2. What led to the establishment of Crown Rule in India?

Crown Rule in India was established in the aftermath of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The British Crown took control from the East India Company to directly govern India, responding to the challenges posed by the rebellion and seeking to consolidate and strengthen British control over the subcontinent.

3. What were the key changes introduced by the Government of India Act, 1858?

The Government of India Act, 1858 marked the initiation of Crown Rule and introduced significant changes, including the direct transfer of authority to the British Crown, the abolition of dual governance, and the establishment of the Secretary of State for India and the Council of India.

4. How did the Indian Councils Act of 1861 impact governance in India?

The Indian Councils Act of 1861 introduced representative institutions, incorporating Indians in the legislative process, decentralizing powers, forming new legislative councils, and granting the Viceroy authority over legislative conduct. It played a key role in shaping India’s constitutional history.

5. What were the major provisions of the Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms)?

The Indian Councils Act of 1909 aimed to counter radicals in the Indian national movement. It increased the size of legislative councils, permitted non-official majorities in provincial legislatures, and introduced communal representation, separating various entities and promoting diverse representation.

6. How did the Government of India Act, 1919 introduce the concept of ‘dyarchy’?

The Government of India Act, 1919 introduced ‘dyarchy,’ a dual governing structure. Provincial matters were categorized as “transferred” and “reserved,” with the former managed by governors accountable to the Legislative Council and the latter handled by the governor and executive council without legislative council oversight.

7. What were the key features of the Government of India Act, 1935?

The Government of India Act, 1935 proposed an All India Federation (which did not materialize), categorized competencies into federal, provincial, and concurrent lists, abolished dyarchy, granted provincial autonomy, and represented a significant stride towards establishing a fully accountable government in India.

8. How did the Indian Independence Act of 1947 shape the political landscape of the Indian subcontinent?

The Indian Independence Act of 1947 marked the end of British rule in India, the division of the subcontinent into India and Pakistan, the establishment of sovereign dominions, and the granting of legislative authority to Constituent Assemblies. It also abolished the Secretary of State for India and initiated the process of princely kingdoms choosing their affiliations.

9. What role did the Revolt of 1857 play in the establishment of Crown Rule?

The Revolt of 1857 was a pivotal event that led to the establishment of Crown Rule. Beyond being a Sepoy Mutiny, it reflected widespread discontent and grievances against foreign rule, prompting the British Crown to take direct control and address the need for a transformation in governance structures.

10. How did the Indian Councils Act of 1892 respond to the Indian National Congress’s call for administrative reforms?

The Indian Councils Act of 1892 responded to the Indian National Congress’s call for reforms by facilitating a move towards a representative form of government. It allowed the head of government to appoint a specified proportion of council members, promoting a more inclusive and participatory approach to governance.

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