Descartes and his Philosophy

Descartes’ philosophy embodied the characteristics of modern philosophy, which had been discussed earlier. One of the key elements was his effort to eliminate all subjective biases from philosophy. He placed philosophy on equal footing with objective sciences such as mathematics. Descartes was the first philosopher to do so. He wanted philosophy to be as precise and practical as science. He emphasized the need for philosophy to be useful in our daily lives.

Descartes believed that philosophy should provide us with a comprehensive understanding of everything that humans can know. This knowledge would include practical information about how to live a good life, maintain good health, and master all the arts. In his own words, he wrote, “Philosophy is a perfect knowledge of all that man can know, as well for the conduct of his life as for the preservation of his health and the discovery of all the arts.“

Descartes was impressed with science and mathematics. He believed that philosophy should be no less practical and exact than these fields. This belief led him to adopt a mathematical methodology to solve philosophical problems. He decided to employ only proven and probable means to arrive at solutions. He had a disdain for medieval philosophers’ thinking, which often showed the stamp of faith. Descartes accepted reason as the final criterion in the field of philosophy, which was subjective. However, he believed that the process of thinking must depend on individual effort.

Descartes is known as the father of modern western philosophy because his system of thought exhibits all the characteristics of this tradition. His philosophy embodied naturalism, scientific orientation, and freedom of thought. These tendencies later developed and flourished in the hands of the philosophers who followed him.

One of these tendencies was rationalism, which developed in Spinoza’s philosophy and reached its zenith in the philosophy of Leibniz.
Another tendency was the adoption of the mathematical method in philosophy.
Descartes was the first to adopt this method, which later evolved into the geometric method of Spinoza, and Leibniz adopted and modified it in a scientific manner.
Descartes looked at philosophy from the standpoint of the scientist. He freed science from religion and spiritualism by defining the boundaries between the material and the mental.
Leibniz and Spinoza attempted to put Descartes’ scientific philosophy into practical shape by adopting a similar scientific approach.
Descartes looked upon philosophy as something that could guide a person in their practical life, not merely as mental gymnastics.
This practical attitude is also found in the philosophies of Spinoza and Leibniz.
Lastly, the problems that Descartes considered became the subject matter of all later philosophical preoccupations. These problems included the relation between mind and body and the form and content of nature.

Cartesian Method

Descartes, a rationalist philosopher, introduced the Cartesian method as a mathematical approach to philosophy in order to achieve certainty in knowledge. He asserted that knowledge must be certain, necessary, and universal. According to him, such certainty and universality was demonstrated only in mathematics, as the axioms of it are indisputable. Through analysis, Descartes sought to identify the universal and real elements of a subject, which would elevate it beyond doubt. This led him to develop and apply the mathematical method to philosophy.

The Cartesian method proceeds from self-evident axioms that are accepted without question. From these axioms, one deduces implied propositions that are also certain. As a result of his inquiry, Descartes established four general rules for his self-guidance.

The first rule is to never accept anything as true unless it is clearly known as such.
The second rule is to divide each difficulty into as many parts as possible.
The third rule is to start with the simplest object and ascend step-by-step to more complex ones.
The fourth and final rule is to ensure that the enumeration is complete, leaving nothing out.

Descartes’ Cartesian method is a mathematical approach to philosophy that seeks to establish certainty in knowledge. Through this method, he identifies the universal and real elements of a subject that are beyond doubt. The method proceeds from self-evident axioms to implied propositions, and it is guided by four general rules that Descartes established for his own use.

Method of doubt

Descartes asserts that a single, unquestionable truth can be identified through a process of universal and purposeful doubt. By pushing doubt to its extreme, it will eventually reveal something that is beyond question and clearly perceived.

To illustrate this point, Descartes provides examples:

The truth of sense testimony can be doubted. Even everyday objects like chairs and tables can be questioned.
The truth of dreams can be doubted (i.e., the possibility that what we perceive as reality is actually a dream).
The truth of scientific claims can be doubted. For instance, there might be a demon who deceives us by presenting false information. Even seemingly obvious truths, such as 2+2=4, could be doubted and replaced with 2+2=5 (known as the evil-demon conjecture).

According to Descartes, it is possible to doubt anything, except for the fact that one is doubting. Whether one is in a dream or a state of wakefulness, one must exist as thinking or doubting being. Even if there were a demon attempting to deceive, one would still exist as a thinking being to be deceived. In other words, just as running requires a runner, thinking requires a thinker.

For Descartes, doubt is not the conclusion of his philosophy, but rather its starting point. He begins with doubt as a means of arriving at truths that are beyond doubt. While it may seem that doubt is the only reality, since without it there can be no doubter, Descartes uses this realization to begin his search for undeniable truths. Having established the existence of doubt, he turns his attention to the nature of this doubt.

Since doubt is a form of thought, the existence of thought itself cannot be doubted. To entertain a doubt about the existence of thought is to engage in thought itself, and rejecting the existence of thought would render the idea of doubt meaningless. Furthermore, thought or doubt can only exist if there is someone to engage in it, and thus a thinker is required.

Through this line of reasoning, Descartes concludes that doubt implies thought, and thought implies the existence of a self. In other words, the presence of doubt serves as evidence for the existence of a thinking self.

I doubt, therefore I exist or,
I think, therefore, I am
i.e. Cogito ergo sum.

The idea of universal and deliberate doubting is the starting point of Descartes’ philosophy, not its conclusion.
Descartes uses doubt to arrive at truths that are beyond doubt.
Doubt is necessary for the existence of a doubter, and only doubt is the real existence.
Doubt implies thought, and thought implies the presence of self.
The certainty of the cogito is clear and distinct, and it is a self-evident axiom.
The cogito reveals the existence of oneself, and consciousness is the means by which one exists.
The content of the self is not known, and what one thinks is a substance.
The cogito occupies a strategic position in Descartes’ philosophy and is intuitively induced rather than deduced.

Deductions

The philosophy of Descartes is deductive, and all elements stem from the simple truth of cogito.
There are major deductions from cogito, including the existence of God (which is elaborated in his proofs of God).
Descartes believes that the external world exists because he knows for certain that God will not deceive the thinking mind.
Descartes posits body-mind dualism, with two separate and distinct substances: a material substance with essential attribute of extension and a mind substance with essential attribute of thought.

Descartes’ Approach

Descartes’ approach is to uncover metaphysical truth through epistemological inquiry.
He seeks to understand “what is” through exploring what can be known.
Therefore, his approach to metaphysical truth is epistemological in nature.

Critical Comments

Descartes does not give reasoning to prove the soul as a substance.
The self cannot be the known, it is the knower.
Descartes fails to explain the inter-relationship between the two substances (soul and body).
Empiricist philosopher David Hume criticizes Descartes’ conception of self; no empirical proof for non-physical substance.
Existentialist thinkers reverse Descartes’ position and justify “I exist, therefore I think.”
Logical difficulty arises in dualism as the relation among the substances can be physical or non-physical.
Descartes establishes dualism without explaining the cause of the creation of the two substances.

Cartesian Dualism

The experience of two distinct elements, the conscious and the material, is a fundamental part of our understanding of the world around us. We observe that the objects that surround us are material and possess characteristics that are absent in living things. In contrast, living objects exhibit qualities that are not found in physical bodies, such as consciousness, desire, will, knowledge, motive, and motion.

This distinction implies that there are two distinct types of creation in the world, a dichotomy that is evident even within our own mind and body. Both possess contradictory attributes, where the mind is not limited by time and space while the body is fixed within a specific order of space and time. Additionally, the mind is subtle while the body is gross, and the mind is not visible while the body is.

Therefore, humans appear to be a combination of two diametrically opposed yet complementary attributes belonging to two differing elements. This observation of parallel duplicity in every element of nature has led many thinkers to conclude that the two elements, the material and conscious, exist in nature. This philosophical theory, based on this conception, is known as dualism and accepts the distinction between mind and body, the conscious and the unconscious, as fundamental.

Many philosophers have observed a duality in nature, where there are two distinct elements present in everything. This observation has led many to conclude that these two elements – the material and conscious – exist in nature. This philosophical theory is called dualism and accepts the fundamental distinction between mind and body, the conscious and the unconscious.

Dualism has been part of Western philosophy since the time of Aristotle, but it was Descartes who first expounded it in the modern era. According to Descartes, substance is something that is independent and self-centered, which does not depend on anything else for its existence. Substance, therefore, is its own foundation and is self-evident.

In the world, there exist two such substances – matter, which is not sentient, and mind, which is conscious. The characteristic of matter is extension, while the characteristic of mind is thought. Because matter is extended, it covers space, while the mind does not cover space because it is of the nature of thought – omnipresent and all-pervading.

Man is composed of both mind and matter, and despite their interaction, they are considered independent of each other. The body, or matter, is able to be divided into parts while the mind is indivisible. Unlike the body, the mind is conscious. However, it is natural to wonder how these two independent elements interact with each other. Descartes proposed a philosophical view called “Interactions” to explain how the mind and body interact with each other despite their independence.

The fundamental question surrounding dualism is how the diametrically opposite nature of mind and matter allows them to interact. For instance, when we act out of desire, it is evident that the mind influences the body, and on encountering a snake, sensations or shivers arise in the body. Descartes provides a physiological explanation for this interaction, known as interactionism, where he argues that the body does not affect the mind. Instead, it is the pineal gland located in the brain responsible for the interconnected activity between the mind and body. Descartes attributes God as the motivating force behind this conjugation of activity.

The concept of dualism is justified by the following points:

Linguistic support: Common language distinguishes between the mind and body, using different terms to refer to them. We do not use physical measurements to describe mental states, and vice versa. This highlights the fundamental difference between the two elements.
Support from experience: Our experiences reveal significant differences between mental and physical elements. Mental activity behaves differently from physical activity, and imagination and memory have no biological counterparts. These observations highlight the unique qualities of the mental element.
Inability to transform: Attempts to explain mental activity through physical activity and vice versa have failed. This demonstrates the distinct nature of the two elements.
Supported by common sense: Our daily experiences show that the world is made up of two distinct elements: physical objects and consciousness. Physical objects are extended, divisible, and lack consciousness, whereas consciousness is not extended or divisible. This reinforces the idea of dualism.

Objectives of Dualism

While mind-body dualism finds support in everyday language and experience, it faces several objections in the philosophical realm. The main arguments against it are:

1. Difficulty establishing a relationship between contradictory elements

Dualism treats the mind and matter as possessing distinct and contradictory qualities, and no philosopher has been able to explain how these contradictory elements cooperate in creating the universe.

2. The mind-body interaction problem

Since the mind and body possess distinct characteristics, it is unclear how they interact with each other. Descartes’ explanation that the pineal gland is responsible for this interaction faces several objections, such as the mind not being extended in space and certain bodily functions producing no reaction in the mind.

Furthermore, if the mind and body are independent of each other, it is unclear why one body cannot harbor multiple minds or why one mind cannot function in multiple bodies. Lastly, animals possess minds and bodies, but there is no clear difference between their minds and human minds, and it is unclear why humans are not found in animal bodies or vice versa. Descartes’ explanation that animals lack souls or the power of thought fails to account for how their bodies perform different functions.

3. Violation of the theory of conservation of energy

The theory of conservation of energy is widely accepted in modern science, asserting that matter cannot be created or destroyed. However, Descartes’ acceptance of the interaction between the mind and body seems to necessitate substantial changes in matter. Even the slightest bodily change can produce significant effects on the mind, and vice versa. This conversion of mental energy to physiological energy and vice versa suggests a non-dual form of energy, which conflicts with Descartes’ theory and violates the principle of conservation of energy.

4. Epistemological difficulties

Descartes argues that real concepts are exact copies of actual objects. However, if this were the case, the copies should be identical to the original objects. But Descartes also posits a complete dichotomy between mind and matter, raising questions about how a mental concept and a material object can be considered the same. If the nature of mind and matter are entirely contradictory, then it seems impossible for a mental concept to accurately copy a material object. Therefore, Descartes’ theory contains contradictory ideas, as the complete separation of mind and matter undermines the possibility of similarity or identity between mental concepts and physical objects.

5. Difficulty in postulating a mutual relationship

If mind and matter are completely independent and inert, what is the nature of their relationship? This relationship can be either mental or physical, and in either case, it will become a part of either the mind or the matter. There are only two possibilities in this case. Either the two elements will lose their independence and become interdependent, or no relationship will be established at all. If a third concept is introduced to explain this relationship, then the duality of mind and matter is destroyed, and they become one. However, it is impossible to establish any relationship between two mutually contradictory and exclusive elements unless one of the elements is believed to have two forms.

5. Metaphysical difficulties

If the universe is composed of only two fundamental elements, mind, and matter, it creates several difficulties. One of the primary questions that arise is which of these two elements existed first? If both existed from the beginning, then what caused them, or were they self-created? Additionally, what is the nature of the relationship between the two? Is it physical, non-physical, or neutral?

These difficulties can only be resolved by accepting that these two primary elements are two forms of one ultimate or primary reality. Without this acceptance, the relationship between the two cannot be reasonably explained. Descartes proposes the existence of a God who is separate from both mind and matter and created the universe. However, if God created these two elements, then Descartes’ theory of dualism becomes irrelevant and transforms into non-dualism, where both mind and matter are identified within God.

6. Difficulties of mind and body

Supporters of dualism have been unable to establish any connection between the mind and body due to their distinct and incompatible qualities. Despite various attempts, no compelling explanation has been presented that can uphold dualism in light of these challenges. As a result, dualism has frequently devolved into non-dualism.

Evaluation of dualism

The objections to dualism presented above make it clear that this theory falls short of providing a satisfactory explanation of the universe. Humans have an innate desire to find unity in diversity, to reconcile dualism into a unified whole. Although duality is ubiquitous in everyday life, it cannot provide complete satisfaction without being reconciled into a monistic view. However, neither monism nor dualism, on their own, can provide full philosophical contentment. To achieve this, it is necessary to establish a duality within monism and a monism within dualism.

Proofs for the Existence of god

Through his method of doubt, Descartes arrives at the conclusion that doubt itself cannot be doubted, and therefore there must be a thinker present. This leads him to the famous phrase “I think, therefore I am.” With the existence of the soul established, Descartes then sets out to prove the existence of God. He argues that without knowledge of God, it is impossible to know anything with certainty, as it is only through God’s existence that one can be sure that what they believe to be true is not an illusion.

In his philosophy, Descartes classifies ideas into three types.

Adventitious ideas are those that are imposed on the mind from the outside and are not clear and distinct.
Factitious ideas are created by the mind through imagination and are also not clear and distinct.
Innate ideas, however, are clear and distinct and are implanted in the mind by God at the time of birth.

To prove the existence of God, Descartes presents several arguments:

1. Causal Argument

Descartes attempts to demonstrate the existence of God by using the concept of perfection, which he argues can only be caused by God’s own existence. According to Descartes, if humans were the cause of the idea of God, they would themselves be perfect, since the idea of God is perfect. However, this is not the case, as humans are not infinite and therefore not perfect.

It is important to note that Descartes’ causal argument differs from St. Anselm’s ontological argument in two ways. Firstly, Descartes’ argument does not begin with the concept of God as an essence, but rather with the actual idea of God that exists in the human mind. Secondly, the existence of God follows from the existence of the concept of God, rather than from the essence of God. Therefore, this argument should not be labeled as ontological.

2. Argument from clear and distinct idea

Descartes’ criterion for determining truth is based on the clarity and distinctness of a concept. He believes that if a concept is absolutely clear and distinct compared to others, it should be accepted as true. The concept of God meets this criterion, as it is clear and distinct in the mind and cannot be changed by humans. Descartes argues that God, being perfect, would not introduce defective or illusory concepts in the mind. Therefore, the conception of an existent being with permanent, unchanging, perfect, omnipresent, omniscient, and infinite attributes, which God has created in the mind, must correspond to an actual existence of such a being.

3. Cosmological Argument

Descartes, having established the existence of God, proceeds to demonstrate the existence of the universe. He argues that since there must be a creator of all living beings and objects in the universe, it follows that the universe must have a creator. Descartes argues that he cannot be his own creator because as a creator he would have existed prior to his own birth and would have made himself perfect. Since this is impossible, it follows that he is not his own creator. Similarly, if his parents were his creators, they would have the power to protect him perfectly, which they do not. Therefore, his parents must also be imperfect and have some cause for themselves. By tracing the chain of cause and effect through the objects in the universe, Descartes arrives at the conclusion that God is the first cause of the universe and the only one with the power to create objects. He uses this proof to further establish the existence of God.

4. Ontological argument

St. Anselm is credited with providing the ontological argument for the existence of God, which proves existence from the fact or form. Descartes shares this view, asserting that the existence of a perfect God is inevitable since the absence of God’s existence would render God imperfect. It is impossible for there to be a perfect God without existence. Therefore, the concept of God proves his existence. This argument shares similarities with the arguments of St. Anselm and St. Augustine. God is the highest being, and there is no distinction between idea and fact in Him. God’s existence is not dependent on our idea of Him, but our idea of God is a part of His perfection and reality.

Theory of External World

Descartes, having established the existence of the soul and God, shifts his focus to the theory of the external world and its existence. However, he encounters three challenges. Firstly, how do we know that external objects truly exist? Secondly, what evidence do we have that these external objects are genuine? And thirdly, why do we question our understanding of the external world? After addressing these inquiries, what conclusions can we arrive at?

External world is real

The reality of the external world cannot be proven solely through our experiences of objects, desires, tendencies, and sensations. However, humans possess an inherent belief in the existence of this reality, which is attributed to the creation of this faith by God. If one were to doubt the existence of the external world, it would contradict this belief and portray God as a deceiver.

One may question why God allows false perceptions through the senses, but Descartes argues that while God permits this possibility, he has also equipped humans with the ability to discern truth from falsehood using their minds. Therefore, God cannot be held accountable for sensory failure alone. It is evident that God guides without misguiding. Hence, the sensations that God has created within us are a result of the external objects that exist in the world around us.

The body holds the closest relation to the soul when compared to other objects. Although the body and soul possess distinct qualities, they cannot be separated. It raises a pertinent question: How is it possible for the mind to recognize physiological changes if the body and soul are fundamentally different entities?

Descartes proposes an explanation for this inquiry by suggesting that nature imparts the necessary education. Nature instills in us trust in the knowledge derived from sensations and perceptions even before any mental scrutiny occurs. However, sensory knowledge is susceptible to illusions that stem from various factors. These factors include:

Moral perception allows one to observe certain real forms of objects.
In dreams, everything observed in one’s waking state can be seen, but the subject matter of a dream is not related to the external world.
It is possible for individuals to believe in something inherently false due to the influence of nature, which compels them to accept certain things that the mind may reject. Additionally, there could be a force within individuals generating sensations, which they attribute to God because they are unaware of its existence. Descartes believes that these doubts are unnecessary since human sensory perceptions are distinctly clear. It is inherent in human nature to possess ideas, and concepts that are clear and distinct should not be doubted. For example, the soul exists, and every soul is attached to a body. The body possesses the quality of extension, while the soul possesses distinct qualities. Moreover, the soul can exist even when the body does not. Without the soul substance, the different stages of thinking cannot be experienced, but the experience of the soul substance is still possible even without thinking. This is because knowledge of the substance does not rely on knowledge of the thought of it, but rather, knowledge of the substance is necessary to identify any distortions.

Descartes defines substance as something that exists independently and does not rely on anything else for its existence. According to him, there is only one objective substance, which is God. He believes in the existence of one absolute substance, which is not related to anything else, and two relative substances, namely the mind and the body.

The mind and body are two independent entities, but both are dependent on God and are known by their respective attributes. The primary attribute of the body is extension, while that of the mind or soul is thought. The existence of an attribute is reliant on the substance, and this attribute can be expressed through different modes. Both the substance and the attributes can exist without the modes, but the modes cannot exist without the substance. While the substance cannot change its attributes, it can alter the modes. For instance, the body must always have extension, but its form can undergo changes.

Descartes proposes that to identify the attributes of a substance, one should focus on qualities that are evident and undoubtedly exclusive. From this perspective, scrutinizing the body would reveal that the only distinct quality it possesses is extension. Sound, color, taste, smell, heat, cold, and other similar qualities cannot be attributed to the body as any encounter with them is not explicitly distinctive.

Descartes concludes that the body is identical to extension, based on the examination of the body’s unique and unquestionable quality, which is extension. Extension refers to the length, breadth, and thickness of an object, and wherever there is space, there must be extension. According to Descartes, since space can be divided into innumerable small fragments, the material substance can also be broken down. Therefore, Descartes does not believe that atoms are indivisible, as the material substance itself is capable of division.

Descartes’ theory can be understood as materialistic in nature, wherein the external world is seen as an infinite extension, and all functions of the universe are merely different modes of this substance of extension. This substance of extension allows for infinite division, whereby the whole can be divided into parts, and the parts can be combined to form a unified whole. Through this process of disintegration and integration, the material substance takes on different shapes and forms.

Motion, the force that enables a body to move from one point in space to another, is responsible for the process of integration and disintegration of material substance, according to Descartes. As a quality of moving bodies, it is the cause of all natural phenomena, and this mechanistic explanation of the universe is based on the fact that the body, being a form of extension, cannot have motion of its own. Therefore, the question arises about the source of this force that moves the universe.

Descartes posits that at the beginning of creation, God created substance, motion, and inertia. He kept the power of motion at a constant level. Descartes’ conception of God as the prime mover resembles Aristotle’s idea. Additionally, his theory of maintaining motion at a constant level is similar to the concept of the conservation of energy in modern science. Descartes believes that all objects in nature move and change according to the laws of nature developed by God himself. These laws are the laws of motion, which are natural laws.

Each body has unique qualities due to the arrangement of its parts, resulting in differences between gas and solid substances. Descartes concludes that the world exists because it is created by God. Descartes is a realist, and he believes that our experiences of the world are natural because God created them. His philosophy indicates a belief in the moral order of the universe since it is the creation of God, who is the creator, destroyer, sustainer, and protector.

Criticism

Dualism

Descartes’ theory of the universe presents the same challenges that arise in any dualistic theory. This difficulty is fundamental to his philosophy as a whole. On one hand, Descartes asserts that God and nature are separate and distinct entities, while on the other hand, he attempts to establish a connection between them. If they are related, then they cannot be truly independent, and conversely, if they are two separate entities, it becomes necessary to explain the nature of their relationship. If God and nature are independent, then it is impossible for God to imprint conceptions on human minds, just as it is impossible for humans to have knowledge of God. However, God and nature cannot be considered as a single entity unless there is an ultimate element that can relate the two and unite them as one.

Concept of Movement

Descartes’ cosmology theory faces another challenge regarding his concept of movement. According to Descartes, God is a pure soul possessing qualities that are fundamentally different from those of material substance. This raises the question of how God can bestow the quality of motion to substance. Although Descartes sometimes suggests that the distinction between mind and body is separate from the distinction between nature and God, he also maintains that God is the sole substance upon which all objects depend or by which they are caused.

Later on, Spinoza attempted to address the problem of dualism through his theistic doctrine, which was similar to Descartes’ efforts. However, the gap between man and nature, nature and God, which is evident in Descartes’ theory, remains unresolved.

The challenge of reconciling the fundamentally different qualities of God and material substance raises important questions about the nature of existence and the relationship between the physical and spiritual realms.

Mechanistic Theory

Descartes’ mechanistic theory faces challenges when it comes to explaining the difference between humans and animals. Descartes asserts that animals’ bodily functions are purely mechanical, but he also believes that humans possess the power of volition. However, this raises the question of how humans differ from animals in terms of their actions and behavior.

Despite this distinction, Descartes does not provide a clear explanation of how humans differ from animals. Moreover, there is no reason why human actions cannot also be explained based on the same mechanistic principles that Descartes applies to animals.

The challenge of reconciling the mechanistic view of nature with the complexities of human behavior raises important questions about the nature of consciousness, free will, and the relationship between mind and body. While Descartes’ mechanistic theory represents an important contribution to the history of philosophy and science, it also highlights the limits of a purely materialistic approach to understanding the world.

Mutually contradictory assumptions

The fact is that Descartes attempted to reconcile science and religion, determination and free will, but his theory was plagued with difficulties as a result. His successors made various attempts to solve the problem of dualism, each shedding at least one of the three substances he believed were real: God, mind, and body.

Malebranche established complete spiritualism, French materialists denied the existence of the mind or soul, and Spinoza saw both body and mind as modes of one substance, God, thus establishing monism. However, each of these solutions had its own unique challenges, and none of them proved superior to Descartes’ system.

Descartes’ epistemological theory, despite his skepticism, had complete faith in the power of reason. As a realist, he accepted the existence of the universe, but this was not supported by his intellectual discoveries. Though a rationalist, he recognized the importance of experience, which led to assumptions that contradicted each other.

Descartes’ ideas have had a significant impact on modern philosophy, not just among rationalists, but also empiricists who have considered the questions he raised in his system of philosophy. Despite its limitations, his work continues to be relevant in contemporary discussions of the relationship between mind and body, the nature of consciousness, and the limits of human knowledge.

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